Keeping Unbiased Language in your Argument Essay

 

When choosing a topic for your argument essay, it’s always best to choose an issue that you’re interested in and passionate about. There’s nothing worse than spending an entire term researching and writing about something that you have little interest in. But it’s also just as important to be fair and unbiased as you write your essay. The language you choose to communicate your points can work to either persuade – or alienate – your audience.

While it’s okay to feel excited or even enraged about a topic, your audience requires careful respect and consideration. Too much wrath and fury, or on the other side, too much praise and approval, will cause your reader to doubt your reliability, and could turn your audience against you.

Avoid Moralistic Language

A fine line exists between persuasive and opinionated, and it all comes down to word choice. In order for readers to feel sympathetic toward your position, a balance must be struck. In the example below, consider how your reader will react:

An added tax should be placed on all surgery drinks, including sodas, and is the only way to encourage healthy alternatives.

At first glance, many health-conscious readers might think this is a good idea. Added federal and state taxes are placed on another unhealthy – though popular – product, cigarettes, so why not sugary drinks?

But this statement implies that all surgery drinks harm our health. Most fruit juices, however, have as much, if not more, sugar than a can of Coke! But some fruit juices have no sugar added; the sugar content comes naturally from the fruit. Are fruit juices high in sugar? Yes. Is fruit juice as harmful as soda? Many would heartily disagree, and juice-drinking readers might feel targeted.

Avoid Superlatives and Exaggerations

Note the use of “only way” in the above example. The phrase, “is the only way to encourage healthy alternatives” implies that higher taxation will automatically push consumers to choose healthier options. The language of “the only way. . .” is a superlative that might turn off a reader by the moralistic tone. It could be one way, but not necessarily the only way.

Superlatives are terms that suggest the highest degree of something, such as
the best way
the worst way
should always
should never

Using superlatives paints the writer into an absolute corner and has no room for compromise.

Alternative: An added tax should be placed on all surgery drinks, including sodas, and could be one way to encourage healthy alternatives.

Example: Legalizing marijuana is the best way to decrease prison overcrowding.

Alternative: Legalizing marijuana might be one way to decrease prison overcrowding.

Example: Embryonic cell research is the perfect solution for finding a cure for Alzheimer’s.

Alternative:  Embryonic cell research is one of the best options to find a cure for Alzheimer’s.

Notice the difference in tone? Superlatives and exaggerations come off as dramatic and often biased and opinionated. By simply changing the language, your reader will be more apt to consider your points and consider your position as credible, whether or not they agree with you in the end.

When constructing an argument, consider how your language might be interpreted by varying audiences. While those who agree might not be offended, neutral or opposing audiences might be turned off by the language and opinionated tone.

 

 

 

 

Is that a Word?

Although I am the last person you’ll find speaking formal, or “proper,” English, I probably do spend more time thinking about grammar and punctuation than the average person. Even though I speak what is considered slang or conversational English, as someone with a background in English, I admit I sometimes notice other people’s mispronunciations. Interspersing slang or colloquialisms in our conversations is a matter of preference and personality. Using made-up words in writing or speech, however, is an error, and that’s different.  Read on to see if you’re guilty of using words that aren’t really words.

Common Errors

“He supposably ended their engagement.”

This is one of the most common errors I hear in speech, and it often transfers to writing because it’s so darn common. It’s an error because supposably is not, has never been, a word. It’s supposedly.

 

“I am quitting my job irregardless of the consequences.”

This might be the second most common error, after supposably. Irregardless is not a word either. It’s regardless, which means “irrespective” or “nevertheless.” It could have started from the related meaning to “irrespective,” but that’s a guess.

 

“For all intensive purposes, I think my political views are the same as yours.”

This use is so common in speech that it has worked its way into written English. But it’s still an error. The correct phrase is “for all intents and purposes,” which translates to “for all practical purposes.”

Interestingly, the origin comes from King Henry VIII in 1546. The first recorded use was in an Act of Parliament, which reads, “to all intents, constructions, and purposes.”

 

“I will do my upmost to help support the president.”

This one is a bit tricky. In this example, “upmost” is describing the degree or quality that this person hopes to support the president. It should say, “I will do my utmost to help support the president.”

Though “upmost” is a word in British and some English dictionaries, it’s used as a shortened version of “uppermost,” an adjective meaning “highest” or “top,” as in, “We are on the upmost floor of the building.” However, according to many grammarians, this is an old, archaic word that is only now used when the writer actually means utmost.

Not So Common Errors

“I pulled out the letters from my chester drawers.”

I recently read a student’s narrative essay that described his room’s “chester drawers.” This is one of those errors that we translate from spoken to written word, though even saying “chester drawers” will raise eyebrows in certain circles. It’s chest of drawers, which makes a lot more sense.

 

“I was hired to type, file, answer phones, excetera.”

This is a word that worked its way in to written form from mispronounced speech. The correct use is et cetera, which is Latin for “and” (et) “the rest” (cetera). The abbreviated version – etc. – is often used in academic essays, but many instructors will request you to omit its use when possible. If you are writing out a list of 3 or 4 items and feel “etc.” is needed, it most likely isn’t. Just write out all the items instead.

 

“I have two expressos every morning.”

Okay, I admit I’ve pronounced it with an “x” forever, but I don’t drink it, so no barista has ever corrected me. However, I’ve seen it infiltrating writing, so we have to stop. It should be, “I have two espressos every morning.” Most people, like me, pronounce it with a hard “x” – EXpresso, but it should be an “s” – espresso. But I’ll bet you coffee aficionados knew that.

 

Final Thoughts

It’s shocking how quickly erroneous speech patterns can begin to creep into our written phrases. Even though we speak imperfectly, most serious writers agree on correct and preferred forms of a word. Carefully consider if your usage and spelling are correct before you turn in your final essay. You’ll undoubtably – I mean undoubtedly – have a better final paper!

 

Let’s eat Grandma! How Punctuation can Save a Life

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

According to most English textbooks and instructors, the omission or misuse of commas is the #1 sentence-level error in writing. Many beginning writers overlook the importance of a correctly used comma, or insert commas as an afterthought where they think they need a pause. Commas, like any punctuation, have rules of use, and failing to follow the rules can lead to, what may appear in your sentence, to be death – or just really awkward and embarrassing sentences!

As the title of this post illustrates, a missing comma can alter the meaning of an otherwise straightforward sentence. With a correctly placed comma,

Let’s eat, Grandma.

it’s understood that we don’t really want to eat Grandma, but that someone is requesting that Grandma eat.

A comma prevents readers from grouping words together in ways that don’t fit your intended meaning, as in the following example:

Did the bear eat John?

 

 

 

 

 

 

I hope not! With a comma, we’re asking John if the bear has eaten:

Did the bear eat, John?

In the following example of a missing comma, you can see how it could create a disturbing image:

All those who like to cook and eat my wife just started a new blog.

There must be a lot of people who like to cook and eat this person’s wife!

With comma: All those who like to cook and eat, my wife just started a new blog.

Comma in a List of Items

What’s for Dinner?

Your mother is making broccoli chicken, peas, and carrots for dinner. So is she making one entrée and one side dish? Or is she making one entrée and two side dishes? Or two entrées and two side dishes? Confused? You might have an idea what food you will be eating, but unless you understand how the sentence is punctuated, you might not know how to interpret the menu.

In the example, broccoli chicken has no comma to separate the words, so it is one dish, like they serve at the corner Chinese restaurant. But peas and carrots are separated with a comma, which indicates that instead of one side dish of mixed peas and carrots, you’ll get a side of peas, and a side of carrots. Make sense? Punctuation can change the meaning of your sentences, and if you’re not careful, you might say something you don’t really mean.

While we’re on the subject of eating, the following faux pas was printed on a magazine cover:

Rachel Ray finds inspiration in cooking her family and her dog.

I doubt Rachel Ray has cooked her family or her dog! Once we add the missing commas in this list, we’re relieved:

Rachel Ray finds inspiration in cooking, her family, and her dog.

That sounds better, doesn’t it?

Below is another example of how failing to place commas in a series can have shocking effects:

Caution! Watch for parasailing horses and buggies on the beach.

I’ve never seen that, have you? But there still seems to be some confusion.

Notice the item – or items – “horses and buggies.” Without a comma to guide us, we don’t know if “horses and buggies” are one unit together like this:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

or if they are two separate entities, like this:

 

 

 

 

 

Commas have rules of usage. There should be no guessing when or where to use any kind of punctuation. Feeling the need to take a breath or pause in a sentence does not necessarily mean you need a comma, but a comma does mean you need to pause.

Now go eat, Grandma!

 

(Some examples from http://www.ucalgary.ca/uofc/eduweb/grammar/course/punctuation/3_4j.htm)

 

 

 

All About Fragments

For a sentence to be a sentence, it must contain a subject and a verb. Toby barked is a complete sentence, as it contains a subject, Toby, and a verb, barked. A sentence is a sentence if it has at least one independent clause, which is a cluster of words that are “independent” of other phrases or clauses to form a grammatically correct sentence.

A fragment is created when the sentence lacks a subject, a verb, or both. Instead of an independent clause or complete sentence, this creates a fragment, or a group of words that require other words, phrases, or clauses to make it complete.

 

Missing Subject:

Walking down the block.

Who or what is walking down the block? We don’t know by the information given. This sentence is incomplete, as it lacks a subject.

The man was walking down the block.

Now it’s a complete sentence, or independent clause. It’s a full thought and a complete sentence.

Missing Verb:

The team when the others lost.

What did the team do? This again is an incomplete sentence, as the crucial verb is missing, creating a fragment.

The team won when the others lost.

The verb, “won” now completes the sentence.

 

Sometimes you can ask yourself if the sentence forms a complete thought, but sometimes spotting fragments can be tricky. Some fragments are actually modifying the sentence, and a reader often reattaches the sentence together, even though the punctuation demands they are separate.

He got his car running again. By fixing the oil gasket.

The first sentence in the example above is an independent clause, or complete sentence. However, the second sentence is a fragment and cannot stand alone without help. It is dependent on other words to form a complete sentence, so it should be attached to the previous sentence (independent clause).

He got his car running again by fixing the oil gasket.

 

Spotting Fragments

One way to test if a sentence is a fragment is to see if you can rephrase the word group into a yes or no question.

EX. 1

She bought the chocolate from the vending machine.

?          Did she buy the chocolate from the vending machine?

Answer: YES – so this is NOT a fragment.

 

EX. 2

Bought the sandwich to eat after class.

?          Did ____ buy the sandwich to eat after class?

            Answer: The question has no subject, so it is a fragment.

Dave bought the sandwich to eat after class.

 

EX. 3

The manager hiring workers for the night shift.

(HINT: avoid beginning the question with is/are or has/have.)

?          Does the manager hiring workers for the night shift?

Answer: The word, hiring, cannot act as the verb in this form.

The manager is hiring workers for the night shift.

 

Be aware that even very long sentences can be fragments, as we see in the example below:

Some films like Twister, which had cows flying through the air, cars hurdling into the sky, and houses exploding into toothpicks with high-tech special effects.

Don’t be fooled by long sentences. Let’s run our test:

?                      Do some films like Twister, which had cows flying through the air, cars hurdling into the sky, and houses exploding into toothpicks with high-tech special effects?

Answer:        Do some films. . . what? We don’t have a question, so it’s a fragment. Note that the verbs in the relative clause beginning with “which” (flying, hurdling, exploding) are not the main verbs of the sentence.

 

Even though in academic and business writing, fragments should be carefully edited out, creative writers and advertisers often use fragments as a creative device. Fragments are a part of normal speech patterns and often a stylistic choice when writing dialogue. Writers who use fragments purposefully do so because they know the rule they are breaking.

“Ridiculous! Utterly ridiculous!”

“No can do. Too much work to do. Terrible, really.”

Mice in the house? Try Mice-B-Gone!

Practice:

Turn the following fragments into sentences. Can you identify what makes them fragments?

1. In plenty of time for dinner.

2. A tune most people know.

3. Without any fear at all.

4. Discovered by the police detective.

5. For example, next Sunday.

6. Predicting the weather even with complex instruments.

7. A book I read when I was a child.

8. Hanging around famous people.

9. Making some mistakes.

10. To sit together at dinner.

(from Bedford St. Martin Exercise Central)

 

 

 

Five-Dollar Words: Defining Academic Vocabulary

Recently I was thumbing through a new writing textbook and came upon a glossary of vocabulary. As I skimmed through the pages, it became clear that, though I had heard some of these terms referenced at one time or another, I wasn’t exactly sure what some of them meant. As an instructor, writer, and writing consultant, I thought if I didn’t know what some of these words meant, then I would bet $5 students might not know what some of these five-dollar words meant either.

Students whose first language is not English have an additional burden of learning a foreign language in addition to learning the sometimes foreign language used in college classrooms. You might find that you are familiar with some of these terms listed below. You might find that the term sounds familiar, but you might not be able to define its meaning. Some of the words below might actually look like a foreign word!

A few of the terms below are specific to English academic writing and arguments in particular. Many of the terms may have a slightly different meaning in another language. You may never run across some of these words again in your academic career. Some of the terms are common in academic classes and critical to know; some terms are useful but not critical; and some are interesting, but not really useful (http://www.u-46.org/roadmap/files/vocabulary/acadvoc-over.pdf).  If you recognize any of these terms from previous classes, it might very well turn up again, so it never hurts to be prepared.

Vocabulary List

Allegorical: from “allegory”; a poem, play, picture, etc. in which the apparent meaning of the characters and events is used to symbolize a deeper moral or spiritual meaning; a symbolical narrative. 

Antithesis: the direct opposite; opposition; contrast. The antithesis of an argument paper is the opposite position of the thesis (anti-thesis).

Assonance: the use of a repetitive vowel sound in successive words or stressed syllables, as in a line of verse. Examples are time and light or shade and made.

Collocation: arrangement of words in a sentence, specifically what nouns go with specific verbs; a co-occurrence of lexical (see below) items, as perform with operation or commit with crime.

Enthymeme: syllogism (see below) or other argument in which a premise or the conclusion is unexpressed; in an enthymeme, part of the argument is missing because it is assumed.

Expository: expounds, sets forth, or explains; a type of essay that informs reader through exposition or explanation.

Gerund: a word with characteristics of both a noun and a verb (by adding the “ing” suffix to the noun);  Reading is easy.

Idiom: a language, dialect, or style of speaking peculiar to a people; unpredictable meaning for words used:  “It was raining cats and dogs.”

Infinitive: the simple or basic form of the verb, as come, take, eat, used after auxiliary verbs, as in I didn’t come, I can’t eat, or this simple form preceded by a function word, as to in I want to eat.

Lexical: the words (or vocabulary) of a language, generally distinguished from its grammatical and syntactical (see below) aspects.

Nominalization: to convert (another part of speech) into a noun, as in changing the adjective lowly into the lowly or the verb legalize into legalization.

Participle:  a form of a verb that is used to indicate a past or present action and that can also be used like an adjective.

Peremptory: leaving no opportunity for denial or refusal; admitting of no contradiction.

Syllogism: deductive reasoning; an extremely subtle, sophisticated, or deceptive argument; a formal argument in logic that is formed by two statements and a conclusion which must be true if the two statements are true.

Syntax/Syntactical:  the organization of words in a sentence; the rules and principles that govern the sentence structure of any language

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

End With a Flourish: How to compose a powerful final sentence

“After all, tomorrow is another day.”

I’ve been reading a lot of student essays recently that introduce their topics well, provide great sources, consider their audience, but then fall flat at the end. It isn’t a problem with failing to offer a restatement of thesis or offering a call to action. It’s more a problem of last-line syntax.

Syntax refers to the arrangement of words in a sentence, or the grammatical structure of a sentence. A particular sentence might have a variety of ways one could order the words and still derive the same meaning. Beginning writers (and even some experienced) sometimes give little thought to word order, and in body of paragraphs, it might not make a great deal of difference for a reader. However, a concluding line needs punch.  The conclusion should not only leave a strong message for the audience, but also communicate that message in a way to create the most emotional impact right down to the final word.

Look at the similar sentences below:

1)    There is no more important issue than this.

2)    There is no more important or more urgent issue.

At first glance, both seem okay. Both say about the same thing. But the second is better. Why? Because the final words, “urgent issue” leaves the reader with a more vivid image than the first example, which ends with a vague phrase. In example 1, the concluding word, “this,” a pronoun, leaves no strong image for the reader. The phrase, “There is no more important issue. . .” is placed in the slightly weaker position at the beginning of the sentence, so it offers less impact. We remember best what we read last.

The second example also utilizes parallel structure, “more important or more urgent . . .,” which works to reinforce the writer’s message by the use of repetition.

In the classic style book, The Elements of Style, Strunk and White say that “The proper place in the sentence for the word or group of words that the writer desires to make most prominent is usually the end.” Let’s take a look at two examples:

1)    Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways.

2)    Since that time, humanity has advanced in many ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude.

The second example has a greater emotional impact by concluding with the words,   “advanced in fortitude.” These are considered emphatic words, or words that should require prominence in the sentence. The first example’s final phrase, “though it has advanced in many other ways,” is a bit vague, the words imprecise, which weaken the message. 

Also notice the cadence of each example. Cadence refers to the musicality of language, the rhythm imparted on language which is influenced by how words are arranged in a sentence. In the first example above, “Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways,” has a falling rhythm. The ending of the sentence has no emphatic punch. It just kind of trails off.

In the second example, the rhythm has built to a crescendo as we approach the end of the sentence; this is done by placing a short dependent clause in the beginning position (“Since that time”), followed by an independent clause (humanity has advanced in many ways), concluding with a flurry of repetitive, hard consonants, or alliteration, which creates a strong punchy conclusion. The rhythm of this syntax slows the reader down and places emphasis on the final words. Read the sentence again, but this time, read it aloud so you can hear:

Since that time, humanity has advanced in many ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude.

Do you hear the power at the end of the sentence? How does it sound different than the first example?

Readers read with their eyes, but we still hear what we read. That’s why all writers should read their work aloud. Even though we read in our head, we don’t get the full effect until we hear the words aloud.  

Tips and Tricks

When you are trying to create a powerful concluding line, some words are better left for positions in their respective sentence other than the end. Pronouns and prepositions often weaken a sentence when placed in the final position. One of the most common pronouns that has no place in the final or power position of a concluding line is “it” – probably the most overused pronoun in student papers.

Think about what idea or image you want to leave the reader with and structure the final sentence accordingly. It’s often simply a matter of putting more thought into your sentence structure. Play around with word order, and read our earlier post on absolute phrases, which explains the different ways phrases can be arranged in a sentence.

Below are some concluding lines from great literature. Consider why the authors made the choices they did, and how changing the word order might hurt – or enhance – the final lines.

All that is very well,” answered Candide, “but let us cultivate our garden.” –Voltaire, Candide

“Yes,” I said. “Isn’t it pretty to think so?” –Ernest Hemingway, The Sun Also Rises

It’s old light, and there’s not much of it. But it’s enough to see by. –Margaret Atwood, Cat’s Eye

It was a fine cry—loud and long—but it had no bottom and it had no top, just circles and circles of sorrow.
–Toni Morrison, Sula

He was soon borne away by the waves and lost in darkness and distance. –Mary Shelley, Frankenstein

Whatever we had missed, we possessed together the precious, the incommunicable past.
–Willa Cather, My Ántonia

 

All about Auxiliary Verbs

 

To understand auxiliary verb forms, let’s first review basic verbs. Verbs can take on different forms depending on how they are used in a sentence:

Base form: Children play in the park.

Infinitive: Tell them to play here.

Past tense: They played all day yesterday.

Past participle: He has played too long.

Present participle: I am playing with her today.

Gerund or noun form: Playing is children’s’ “work.”
(from Essentials of English Grammar)

Auxiliary, or helping verbs, help complete the verb form of past and present participles, as shown in the examples above, has played and am playing. The auxiliary verbs create a change of tense. They are also sometimes referred to as complex verbs. The combination of the auxiliary verb and the main verb is referred to as a verb phrase.

Auxiliary Verbs

The following are the most common auxiliary verbs that help complete a basic verb:

•be (am, are, is, was, were, being, been)
•have (had, has, having)
•shall
•should
•can
•could
•will
•would
•may
•might
•must
•do (did, does, doing)

Auxiliary + Main Verb

is/are
The dog is barking at the joggers.
The dogs are keeping me up at night.

has/have
The writer has finished his book.
The editors have ordered the book.

should/would
The teacher should let the students out on time.
We would like to go to the skate party.

can/could
She can work until lunch.
He could go home if his work is done.

do/did
I do like your new hairstyle.
I did pass the algebra exam.

will/shall
I will go to school even though it snowed.
I shall buy the watercolor painting.

must/ought
She must go to the doctor.
He ought to call the manager.

 

Auxiliary Word Order

Let’s look at 3 different examples of auxiliary verbs in a sentence:

After having eaten the last bite of dinner, Denise should have saved a piece of dessert for her sister, knowing she would be late.

Note that the word order in verb phrases is set, meaning the order of the auxiliary and main verbs cannot be rearranged. It wouldn’t make sense to say, “Denise have should saved a piece of dessert, knowing she be would late.” The only time an auxiliary verb can be moved is when a question is posed, such as “Should Denise have saved a piece of dessert?” When posing a question, the auxiliary verb always precedes the subject.

Identifying parts of the Verb Phrase

In the sentence, “My friend may have been drinking liquor,” there are three auxiliary verbs.                                                                                                            

• May is a referred to as a modal, which must be followed by the base form, have.
• Have indicates the tense is perfect, and must be followed by a past participle, been.
• Been – or any form of “be” – when it is followed by a present participle, as in drinking from the example above, indicates the tense is progressive.

Final Thoughts on Auxiliary Verbs

As discussed on Writing Center Underground last week, when speaking, it’s common to incorrectly enunciate a few of our auxiliary verb phrases.

Incorrect:
I should of told him sooner.
I might of won if the contest wasn’t fixed.
We could of stayed home.
I could of been a contender!

In each of these examples, “of” takes the place of “have,” which is the correct auxiliary. The word “of” is a preposition and not an auxiliary verb. However, it’s become so common in speech that it has begun to find its way into written discourse. Take care when writing to make sure you are using the correct form.

New Year’s Writing Resolutions

 

Happy New Year!

To get the New Year off to a new start, unlearning bad writing habits is as important as learning new writing habits. Below is a list of some of the most common usage errors and why you should unlearn them before that next paper is due.

What’s wrong with the following sentences?

I should of taken the dog out.

I could of taken him out this morning.

I would of taken him out, but I overslept.

What’s wrong with these sentences? Each one has the same error.

Correct:
I should have taken the dog out.
I could have taken him out this morning.
I would have taken him out, but I overslept.

These similar errors are a direct result of how we speak, but speaking does not always transfer to proper grammar. The spoken form could be very different than the written form. We typically “hear” should of, could of, would of, but the correct written form is should have, could have, would have.

Which of the following do you really mean?

I could care less.

I couldn’t care less.

If you mean you care so little that you actually could not care any less than you already care, then you couldn’t care less. However, if you could care less, you actually do care a little bit, which is not what a speaker usually intends. So “I could care less,” isn’t really logical, though it is used quite often.

Which is correct?

I love you, irregardless of your faults.

I love you, regardless of your faults.

The correct answer is “regardless.” There would never be any instance where you would use the word “irregardless,” because it isn’t a word. Rumor has it the use of irregardless was formed by combining irrespective and regardless, two words with similar meanings.

Which spelling is correct?

I was supposed to go to work today.

I was suppose to go to work today.

For this usage, supposed is correct. “Suppose” is indeed a word, meaning to assume or consider, such as, “I suppose you are right.”

Which sentence is correct?

For all intensive purposes, I have retired.

For all intents and purposes, I have retired.

In student papers, this error is more common than you would think. The second sentence is correct. “Intensive” means a high concentration of a specific quality or element. It’s obviously a word, but using it in this way is, for all intents and purposes, incorrect.

This is one that might pop up in a narrative essay. Which is correct?

I would like to purchase a matching chester drawers.

I would like to purchase a matching chest of drawers.

Forget about how you say it, but consider the words. What is a “chester”? Other than a city in England and Pennsylvania, or maybe a man’s first name, a chester has no meaning. The correct answer is chest of drawers.

To disburse or disperse? That is the question. But what is the answer?

To disburse means to distribute money, to pay out expenditures.

Disperse means to scatter. I suppose you could disperse a stack of $100 bills off a building, but unless you’re rich, probably not likely.

The lawyer will disburse the funds to each surviving heir.

Police dispersed the crowd.

To remember the difference, disburse – with a u – relates to money. U need money.

[Note: Disburse‘s corresponding noun is disbursement, not disbursal. Disperse‘s corresponding noun is dispersal, not dispersement (grammarist.com).]
This is a very short list of a few bad writing habits to break to set you on the write coarse for the New Year. I mean right course.

Or did I? 😉

 

 

Who or Whom?

WHO! WHO!

Last week at Writing Center Underground, we covered pronoun case. This week, we’ll cover one of the most common misunderstandings when using pronouns: the correct use of “who” and “whom.” To understand the difference, we first need to understand the difference between a subject and an object. Let’s review:

Subject
The subject of the sentence is the person, place, or thing doing something. It’s the word that performs the action of the verb.

          s
The dog barked at the cat.
            s 
The steak tastes great.
    s
John finished the race in record time.

Object
The object of the sentence is the receiver of the action and usually follows the verb.
                                              o                                        
The workers painted the barn.
                                 o  
The boys threw rocks.
                                                o  
Steve dropped his new phone.

Who & Whom Questions

Who

To determine if you would use who at the beginning of a question, answer the question using a personal pronoun. If the answer is in the subjective case, use who.

Ex: Who painted the barn?
They painted the barn; they is subjective (the subject) thus, who is correct.

Ex: Who threw the rocks?
He threw the rocks; he is subjective, thus, who is correct.

Ex: Who dropped his new phone?
He dropped his new phone; he is subjective, thus, who is correct.

Quick tip: Who acts just as I, he, she, they and we do in a sentence. These pronouns can only be used as the subject of a sentence.

Whom

To determine if you would use whom at the beginning of a question, answer the question using a personal pronoun. If the answer is in the objective case, use whom.

Ex: Whom did you marry?
I married her; her is objective, thus whom is correct.

Ex: Whom did the instructor want to work with?
The instructor wanted to work with him; him is objective, thus whom is correct.

Ex: Whom will the new law benefit?
The new law will benefit them; them is objective, thus whom is correct.

Quick tip: Whom acts just as the pronouns me, him, her, and them. These pronouns can only be used as the object of a sentence.

Who or Whom in Dependent Clauses

In more complex sentences, it doesn’t matter how the dependent clause functions in the whole sentence, only how it functions in the clause. The pronoun case in a dependent clause is determined solely by its function in the clause.

Ex: The new nanny was not whom they had hoped.

Let’s break this example down. Whom is the object of the dependent clause “whom they had hoped,” even though the clause is the complement of was (the verb); thus, the pronoun should be the objective case, or whom.

Ex: She is a strong leader whom people either love or hate.
In this example, whom is the object of the verbs love and hate. Even though the clause is the complement of the verb is, the pronoun should be objective case, or whom.

Final thoughts

Once you are able to identify the subject and object of a sentence, the decision whether to use “who” or “whom” will come more easily.

Now you try!

Insert who or whom in the following examples.

1.    ____ shall I say is calling?

2.    She shared the secret with those ____ she trusted.

3.    The only people ____ they can recommend are the two experts.

4.    The prize goes to the runner ____ collects the most points.

5.    David feels like a king ____ receives special treatment.

 

(answers: 1= who; 2 = whom; 3 = whom; 4 = whom; 5 = who)

 

 

 

All About Articles

English language learners often find that one of the toughest things to learn about the English language is article use. While some languages utilize articles, not all of these have both definite and indefinite articles as in English, so as non-native speakers begin to learn the intricacies of English, articles can be especially troubling.

Technically, an article is an adjective, as the article modifies the noun just as an adjective does. Articles are also referred to as “determiners” as they determine whether something is specific or nonspecific. Articles in English are either definite (specific), or indefinite (nonspecific).  

THE – The Definite Article

The is a definite article, which refers to something specific. For example, “Let’s go to the movie,” refers to a specific movie. If the sentence stated, “Let’s go to a movie,” it could mean any movie, or a nonspecific movie.

Other examples of definite articles:

I want to go to the party. (a specific party, not just any party)
Can a have the cookie? (a particular cookie, not just any cookie)
I want the coat on sale. (a particular sale coat)

Definite articles are also used before names of educational departments, buildings or institutions, such as

I want to go to the University of Nebraska.
He works in the Department of Gerontology.

Definite articles also precede bodies of water and mountain ranges:

I have heard the Great Lakes are beautiful.
Have you been to the Rocky Mountains?
I want to ski the Swiss Alps.

Other notes on definite articles

If you are referring to a country that is only one word, you would not use an article:

I am from Africa. (not the Africa)
I have visited France. (not the France)

You would not use “the” for planets:

Incorrect: The Pluto is the smallest planet.
Correct: Pluto is the smallest planet.

Finally, omit “the” before cities, towns, states, continents, names of streets, languages, nationalities, sports (football), and academic subjects.

But DO use “the” before rivers, oceans, seas, specific points on the globe (the South Pole), geographical areas, deserts and forests.

A and An – Indefinite Article

A or An are indefinite articles, which refers to a non-specific noun. For example, “Can I get a dog?” refers to any dog in general. In contrast, “Can I get the dog,” is referring to one specific dog. The beginning letter and sound of a word will determine whether you’ll use A or An. A singular noun beginning with a vowel will use “an”: an orange; an airplane; an opera. Also, an will precede a noun with a silent “h” such as hour. However, if the “h” is not silent, you would use the article a, such as a horse or a hobby.

A singular noun beginning with a consonant will use “a”; a car; a boy; a tornado. “A” is also used with a singular noun that has a consonant sound, such as university, which begins with a “y” sound, a consonant.

Other examples of indefinite articles:

I’d like to go to a university. (any university will do)
Can I have an apple? (any apple)
I want to see an octopus. (no particular octopus)

We do not use an indefinite article with plural nouns and noncount nouns:

She was wearing red shoes. (shoes is a plural noun)
She has long brunette hair. (hair is a noncount noun)
I want to wear denim jeans to work Friday. (jeans is plural)
I have so much homework to do! (homework in noncount)

 

This is only a brief morsel of an extremely complex English grammar rule, a rule that takes a lot of time to master for English Language Learners (and even native-English speakers!).  For more help, a great resource is Purdue Owl Online Writing Lab – or your local writing center!

Other resources:

http://www.eslcafe.com/grammar.html
http://www.usingenglish.com/
http://www.esl-lounge.com/student/index.php